Plants

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Ixia ebrahimii, a new Ixia species found by the Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers (CREW) team. Image credits: © Ismail Ebrahim

17%
taxa assessed
Threatened

70%
taxa assessed
Well Protected

14%
taxa assessed
Not protected

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Key findings

• South Africa’s flora shows very high levels of species diversity and endemism: 13,642 of the 20,248 taxa (67%), with high concentration in the Fynbos biome.

• 1 in 5 endemic taxa are threatened.

• Trends in species status over time were assessed using a representative sample of 900 plant taxa, revealing an increase in extinction risks. Plants threatened with extinction increased by 2% between 2017 and 2024.

• Declining trends are driven mainly by habitat loss and further intensified by invasive species, illegal harvesting, and the intensifying impacts of climate change.

• Protected area expansion has improved plant protection.

Figure 1. Density of threatened plant species (10 x 10 km grid) based on a representative sample of 900 species. Highest concentrations occur in the Cape Floristic Region — a global biodiversity hotspot with exceptional richness and high levels of threat.

Threat status, trends and pressures

1. Threat status

South Africa has assessed the threat status of 20,248 indigenous plant species using the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species categories and criteria, which reflect a species’ risk of extinction. The Red List includes several extinct categories, three threatened categories - Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), and Vulnerable (VU) - as well as categories for Near Threatened (NT), Data Deficient (DD), and Least Concern (LC). South Africa augments the IUCN system by adding a category for rarity (Rare), defined as range- restricted endemic species with a global extent of occurrence of less than 500 km² that occur in areas with no significant anthropogenic pressures. Rare species are prioritized for national conservation interventions, even if they qualify as Least Concern under the IUCN system. 

Among assessed taxa, 0.2% (36) are extinct or possibly extinct, and 15% (3,195) are threatened. The country also has high endemism, with 13,648 taxa (67%) found only in South Africa. 

Given this exceptional diversity and high levels of threat, monitoring all species is not practical. To track trends in extinction risk and identify the pressures driving these risks, a representative sample of 900 plant taxa was used. Of the assessed sample taxa, 17% taxa are threatened with extinction (Figure 3 C).

Figure

Figure 2. Threat status of South African plant taxa, here represented by a representative sample of 900 plant species; categories follow the IUCN 3.1 Red List Categories and Criteria with an additional national category of Rare added for range-restricted, localised endemics that are not declining. The portion of species in each category is shown in the larger circle, and the proportion of endemic species per category is shown in the smaller circle. A) shows threat status for All plant taxa (B) status for South African Endemic plant taxa (C) Representative sample taxa (D) Representative sample endemics.

Data

Table 1. Summary statistics per IUCN Red List category for all South African indigenous plant taxa, as well as for a representative sample of 900 taxa.

Taxon	Extinct	Extinct in the Wild	Critically Endangered	Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct)	Endangered	Vulnerable	Near Threatened	Data Deficient	Rare	Least Concern	Total
Representative sample taxa	0	0	20	3	47	83	67	49	44	587	900
Representative endemic taxa	0	0	16	3	43	74	60	38	44	310	588
All plant taxa*	28	8	538	71	1027	1559	600	1367	1318	13732	20248
Endemic plant taxa*	28	7	476	70	969	1474	540	1272	1270	7542	13648

NoteBox 1. Conservation interventions for medicinal plants reversing extinction risk trends (Warbrugia salutaris).

A pioneering conservation model developed in the Kruger National Park and spread to other parts of South Africa, has successfully resulted in the highly popular medicinal plant the pepper bark tree being downlisted from Endangered to Vulnerable. The conservation intervention that supplies traditional healers with cultivated plants to grow in home gardens, has reduced pressure on wild populations while ensuring continued access to culturally important resources. The intervention has slowed and reversed the species’ decline, leading to a genuine improvement in its Red List status. Building on this success, the model is now being expanded to other medicinal plant species, offering a replicable blueprint for balancing cultural practices with biodiversity conservation.

Traditional healers are receiving seedlings of the Warburgia salutaris to support conservation and sustainable use of this culturally important medicinal species. Image credits: © SANParks (CC-BY-NC).

Important medicinal species. Image credits: © SANParks (CC-BY-NC).

2. Trends – Red List Index

The trend in species status over time was measured using the globally recognised indicator, the IUCN Red List Index of species (RLIs)¹. The RLI is calculated for specific taxonomic groups based on genuine changes in Red List categories over time. The RLI value ranges from 0 to 1, and the lower the value, the faster the taxonomic group is heading towards extinction – i.e. if the value is 1, all taxa are Least Concern, and if the value is 0, all taxa are extinct. The Red List Index of plants is calculated using a sample of 900 plant taxa.

The Red List Index results indicate a gradual decline in the conservation status of plant species. About 5% of the sample taxa became more threatened between 1990 and 2018, with a further 2% increasing in threat between 2018 and 2024.

An increase in extinction risk is evident for plant taxa occurring in the Desert and Succulent Karoo biomes (Figure 3). Rising threat levels for plants have largely been driven by climate change and habitat loss caused by mining and renewable energy developments. Most of the plants that have been uplisted due to increasing extinction risk are found in the Northern Cape. The province has been severely affected by drought over the past decade and continues to face pressure from mining and renewable energy developments.

Figure

Figure 3. The Red List Index (RLI) for plant taxa assessed in South Africa. The slope of the line indicates the rate at which species within each taxonomic group are becoming more threatened over time. The lower the value the faster the group of species is heading towards extinction (if the value is 0, all species are extinct).

Data

Table 2. List of plant taxa with genuine changes in their threat status and corresponding drivers, based only on taxa included in the representative sample of 900 plants. Asterisks indicate endemism levels: * endemic and ** near-endemic.

Taxon	Change in status (2018 to 2025)	Direction of change	Reason for change
Adromischus marianiae*	LC to NT	Increase	Competition from invasive alien species, illegal collection, and drought-related mortality are causing a decline in the population.
Aloe meyeri*	LC to CR	Increase	Prolonged drought conditions and ongoing aridification resulting from climate change have caused >70% mortality in subpopulations.
Amphibolia succulenta*	NT to EN	Increase	The population has declined by approximately 45% over the past two generations (30–40 years) due to prolonged droughts. An additional 10% decline is projected as a result of ongoing droughts and emerging threats, such as renewable energy development, which are expected to impact the area of occupancy.
Anacampseros albissima	LC to VU	Increase	The population is declining due to illegal collection. Emerging threats, such as renewable energy development, are projected to impact the area of occupancy.
Anisochaeta mikanioides*	LC to NT	Increase	Habitat disturbance and transformations due to the expansion of rural settlements and agricultural crop farming.
Arenifera pillansii*	EN to CR	Increase	Prolonged drought conditions and ongoing aridification resulting from climate change have resulted in >70% mortality in some subpopulations.
Argyroderma testiculare**	LC to NT	Increase	Potential threat of poaching, and species in this genus are highly sought after.
Aspalathus pinea subsp. caudata*	VU to EN	Increase	Habitat quality is declining due to the spread of alien invasive plants.
Astridia citrina*	EN to CR	Increase	Based on habitat loss to mining and the projected aridification of its range.
Babiana lineolata*	NT to VU	Increase	At least 10% of the population has been lost due to crop cultivation.
Centella thesioides*	VU to NT	Decrease	Alien clearing successfully improved the threat status.
Conophytum francoiseae*	VU to CR	Increase	The population is declining due to the illegal collection.
Conophytum irmae*	EN to CR	Increase	The population is declining due to the illegal collection.
Conophytum pellucidum subsp. saueri*	VU to CR	Increase	The population is declining due to the illegal collection.
Conophytum praesectum*	LC to EN	Increase	The population is declining due to the illegal collection.
Conophytum rugosum*	LC to EN	Increase	The population is declining due to the illegal collection.
Conophytum stevens-jonesianum*	LC to EN	Increase	The population is declining due to the illegal collection.
Crassula alstonii*	LC to NT	Increase	Loss of habitat from mining activities within its range and illegal collection.
Cyrtanthus herrei*	NT to VU	Increase	Loss of habitat from mining activities within its range and illegal collection.
Dahlgrenodendron natalense*	EN to VU	Decrease	Habitat quality has improved due to alien invasive clearing.
Ferraria schaeferi*	LC to EN	Increase	Loss of habitat from mining activities within its range, and the emerging threat (renewable energy development) is projected to affect the area of occupancy.
Haworthia wittebergensis*	LC to NT	Increase	The population is declining due to the illegal collection.
Hebenstretia dregei*	VU to EN	Increase	Increased threat due to competition from invasive alien plant species.
Jordaaniella uniflora*	NT to CR	Increase	Loss of habitat to mining and ongoing desertification exacerbated by climate change.
Leucadendron meridianum*	LC to NT	Increase	Loss of habitat due to coastal development and competition from invasive alien plant species.
Leucospermum oleifolium*	LC to NT	Increase	Increased threat due to competition from invasive alien plant species.
Lobelia ardisiandroides*	NT to VU	Increase	Increased threat due to competition from invasive alien plant species.
[Manulea robusta]* (https://www.inaturalist.org/observations?taxon_id=589636)	VU to CR	Increase	Severe droughts have caused an 80% population decline.
Mitrophyllum mitratum*	VU to EN	Increase	The population is declining due to the illegal collection.
Pelargonium acetosum*	LC to VU	Increase	Loss of habitat to urban expansion and crop fields
Pelargonium quarciticola*	LC to VU	Increase	The population is declining due to the illegal collection.
Phylica incurvata*	VU to EN	Increase	Subpopulations are severely fragmented, with additional pressures from competition with invasive alien plant species, fire exclusion, and overgrazing.
Portulacaria namaquensis*	LC to NT	Increase	Prolonged drought conditions and ongoing aridification resulting from climate change.
Psoralea trullata*	LC to NT	Increase	Increased threat due to competition from invasive alien plant species
Stipagrostis geminifolia*	NT to CR	Increase	The population is declining due to livestock grazing and mining activities. Emerging threat, such as renewable energy development, is projected to impact the area of occupancy further.
Trachyandra aridimontana*	EN to CR	Increase	The population declined by over 70% due to prolonged drought conditions, livestock overgrazing and trampling, as well as illegal collecting.
Warburgia salutaris*	EN to VU	Decrease	A successful conservation intervention model has reduced overharvesting, slowed the rate of population decline, and led to a genuine improvement in the species' conservation status.

Figure 4. Map showing the distribution of plant taxa that have increased in threat status since the NBA 2018, based on the representative sample of 900 plant species.

3. Pressures

Species in terrestrial ecosystems are subject to multiple and interacting pressures, including habitat loss and fragmentation, invasive alien species, pollution, resource use, and climate change. Among these, habitat loss remains the most significant pressure and the single largest cause of species decline. The main drivers of habitat loss include the conversion of natural vegetation for croplands, mining, plantations, human settlements, and infrastructure development. Habitat fragmentation further affects ecological functioning and the viability of species, especially under climate change and biological invasions.

Recent analyses reveal a notable shift in the primary drivers of extinction risk for plant taxa. Historically, these risks were predominantly associated with competition from invasive species, agricultural expansion, urban development, and overgrazing by livestock. However, current trends indicate an increasing influence of climate change and habitat degradation linked to mining activities, alongside emerging threats from renewable energy infrastructure development. This shift is particularly evident in the Northern Cape Province, where a significant number of species have been uplisted due to increasing extinction risk. The province has experienced prolonged drought over the past decade and continues to face expanding mining activities. In addition to climate change, emerging threats such as renewable energy development could further impact already stressed ecosystems.

Agriculture, including crop cultivation and livestock farming, continues to affect the largest proportion of taxa (68%), while residential and commercial developments, though largely historical, still impact 36%, with a small but ongoing decline. Among the species that changed in threat status, the main contributing pressures were competition from invasive alien species (57%), harvesting of plants (28%), and habitat loss due to mining (13%). The influence of climate change and severe weather events is also becoming more pronounced, now affecting 11% of taxa.

Figure 5. Key pressures on South Africa’s plant taxa, based on a representative sample of 900 plant taxa. This bar chart shows the relative frequency of pressures affecting threatened plant species. Pressures are categorized using the IUCN Threat Classification Scheme and are ranked from most to least frequent number of impacted species.

NoteBox 2. Illegal trade in succulent plants.

South Africa’s unique succulent diversity, particularly in the globally significant Succulent Karoo biodiversity hotspot, faces catastrophic pressure from a dramatic surge in illegal harvesting driven by lucrative international demand. Since 2017, 878 species, the majority endemic, have been impacted by indiscriminate wild collection. A total of 878 species have been illegally collected, with 12 species considered functionally extinct due to the majority of their populations being harvested from the wild.

The succulent trade crisis stems from multiple interconnected factors: a notable absence of cultivated material to meet global horticultural demand, limited economic opportunities in remote regions like the Northern Cape that make residents vulnerable to recruitment by criminal syndicates, inadequate in-situ protection measures across vast arid landscapes, and the proliferation of online trade platforms that facilitate laundering operations. These pressures have been exacerbated by climate change impacts, including extended drought conditions since 2016, the COVID-19 pandemic’s socio-economic effects, and overwhelmed conservation authorities struggling with insufficient resources and capacity to manage the growing volume of confiscated plants requiring specialized care.

Recognizing that initial law enforcement-focused responses had limited impact, the Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment, in partnership with the South African National Biodiversity Institute and WWF South Africa, developed the comprehensive National Response Strategy and Action Plan in 2022 to address the illegal trade holistically through collaborative multi-stakeholder action. The strategy encompasses seven interconnected objectives designed to ensure both conservation outcomes and sustainable socio-economic development: ensuring long-term survival of representative wild populations, establishing well-managed ex-situ collections for confiscated specimens, capacitating compliance and enforcement sectors with improved resources and coordination, streamlining regulatory frameworks to support enforcement while enabling sustainable use, reducing pressure on wild populations through community engagement and livelihood diversification, developing effective communication strategies about the trade’s impacts, and exploring options for a formal legal economy that benefits conservation and local development. Each objective identifies specific actions, lead agencies, supporting partners, priorities, and timelines, with SANBI coordinating overall implementation through dedicated coordination positions established in 2023.

The trends in the illegal plant trade are constantly changing. Dwarf succulents from the family Aizoaceae originally dominated it, while geophytes and Euphorbia have become more popular recently. Image credits: © Ismail Ebrahim (CC-BY-NC)

Staff taking care of confiscated succulents, in the hope of reintroduction into the future. © Nora Mulcahy (CC-BY-NC)

Protection level

Plants were assessed using a representative sample of 900 taxa. Peripheral taxa with less than 5% of their distribution in South Africa were excluded from the analysis. Protection levels were calculated for this sample to track changes in extinction risk over time (see the technical approach here).

The analysis indicates an overall increase in the number of Well Protected species, while species in the Poorly Protected and Moderately Protected categories showed only minor changes. Of the 900 species assessed, 72 (8%) shifted protection level categories between 2017 and 2024. Most of these changes (60) were positive, driven primarily by improved management and the establishment of new protected areas. However, deterioration in management effectiveness at eight protected areas led to a decrease in the Protection Level for 12 species. Plant species are severely affected by threats occurring within protected area boundaries, leading to a downgrade in their protection category. The main reason for the ineffectiveness of these protected areas is the high level of plant poaching in the protected area of Namaqualand.

Many species have shown an improvement in their protection levels since the last assessment in 2018. A total of 5% of the assessed plant species now have better protection, largely due to the proclamation of the Mountain Zebra–Camdeboo Protected Environment, Gamsberg Nature Reserve, and Orange River Mouth Nature Reserve.

Figure 6. Protection level results of South African plant taxa. Representative sample (900 plants) (A), and representative sample of endemics (B). Most taxa are well protected, but a notable proportion remains poorly or not protected.

Figure 7. Daubenya namaquensis, a rare and restricted range species from Namaqualand experienced a genuine improvement in protection level status as a result of the declaration of new protected areas between 2018 and 2025. © Nick Helme (CC-BY-NC).

NoteBox 3. Calling all citizen scientists!

To contribute data to future Red List and Protection Level assessments of plant species, you can join the Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers (CREW) Programme – a citizen-science initiative focused on the monitoring and conservation of South Africa’s threatened plants.

For more information, contact CREW at 📧. Alternatively, join the iNaturalist citizen science projects: South African Red List: Plants and Animals and redlist (s Afr)

New to iNaturalist (or never heard of it) and want to play along? Watch these video tutorials to get started, and sign up on the iNaturalist website or download the app on your smartphone. To see how valuable your nature photographs can be, watch this inspiring TED talk.

Species recovery

As part of the Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) Target 4, signatories are committed to taking urgent action to halt human-induced extinctions, reduce species’ risk of extinction, and improve their conservation status by 2030. Achieving this target requires coordinated efforts to prevent and reverse species declines, recover and conserve populations, and maintain genetic diversity, particularly among threatened species. South Africa has initiated a process with each taxonomic group that has comprehensive Red List assessments for their taxonomic groups, to identify and prioritise species in urgent need of recovery to contribute to achieving the GBF Target 4 goals.

NoteBox 4. A prioritization process for plant recovery.

With over 3000 plants threatened with extinction, multiple interventions to address threatened species declines are required, including the expansion of protected areas, the restoration of habitats that are being degraded by invasive species, and the inclusion of threatened plants in biodiversity sector plans. In addition, 293 critically endangered and endangered plants need active recovery projects to take place in order to ensure that they do not go extinct in the next decade. Between 2020 and 2023, the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) led a process to prioritise plants in urgent need of recovery, using the IUCN Red List categories and criteria to select those in most urgent need of recovery. A species recovery working group with conservation agencies and indigenous plant growers has been established, and each stakeholder has been allocated a handful of species to implement recovery work on. A major upscaling of resources to support species recovery is required, as only 14 of the 293 species that require recovery have active recovery projects implemented.

Below are two examples of critically endangered plant species that require urgent recovery interventions to ensure their long-term survival. The accompanying flyers outline the key activities needed, including habitat restoration, population reinforcement, and threat mitigation. If you would like to financially support the recovery of a critically endangered plant taxa from extinction, , please contact Ismail Ebrahim at i.Ebrahim@sanbi.org.za

Acknowledgement 

Coordinated by: 

Funded by:

Data sources

1. South African Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). 2024. Statistics: Red List of South African Plants. Available at: http://Redlist.sanbi.org . Accessed August 27, 2025.

2. South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). 2019. National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: The status of South Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity. Synthesis Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute, an entity of the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria. pp. 1–214.

Recommended citation

Mtshali, H., Raimondo, D.C., Van Der Colff, D., Von Staden, L., Nozipho, N.N., Hendricks, S.E., & Monyeki, M.S. 2025. Plants. National Biodiversity Assessment 2025. South African National Biodiversity Institute. http://nba.sanbi.org.za/.

References

1. Butchart, S.H.M. et al. 2004. Measuring global trends in the status of biodiversity: Red list indices for birds. PLoS Biology 2: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0020383