Ecosystem Protection Level

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36%
of 190 ecosystem types
Well Protected

27%
of 190 ecosystem types
Not protected

7%
of the coastal extent
Well Protected

25%
of the coastal extent
Not protected

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Introduction

Ecosystem protection level (EPL) is one of the headline indicators of the National Biodiversity Assessment. This indicator measures the degree to which ecosystem types are represented in South Africa’s protected area network, and has been used as in national reporting since 2005.

After comparing the extent extent of each ecosystem type under protection relative to its predefined biodiversity target (ranging 16-32%), with heuristics regarding the ecological condition within protected areas, ecosystem types are assigned to one of four categories:

• Well Protected (WP): the extent target for the ecosystem type is met or exceeded within the protected area network

• Moderately Protected (MP): 50 - 99% of the extent target for the ecosystem type is met within the protected area network

• Poorly Protected (PP): 5 - 49% of the extent target for the ecosystem type is met within the protected area network

• Not Protected (NP): <5% of the extent target for the ecosystem type is met within the protected area network

For NBA 2025, the EPL indicator was calculated across all realms, and the results are summarised here for the 190 coastal ecosystem types that were assessed. For more details on EPL, see the general introduction to this headline indicator.

Coastal Ecosystem Protection Level

Proportionately, the coast is slightly more protected than the rest of the land and sea (Figure 2, Table 1). This is positive given the myriad of benefits provided by coastal ecosystems and their disproportionately impacted and threatened status.

Although 86% of coastal ecosystem types have some level of protection (163 of 190 types), only 19% are Well Protected, which accounts for 7% of the coastal extent (Figure 2, Table 1).

There is good progress in protecting coastal ecosystem types, but the national protected area network does need to be strengthened to afford protection to most of the coastal zone that is currently Poorly Protected or Not Protected (54% of types and 74% of extent), especially for coastal terrestrial and estuarine ecosystem types.

Ideally, coastal ecosystem types should have cross-realm protection in contiguous land-based and marine protected areas. Good examples of cross-realm protection are: Garden Route National Park and Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area (MPA); iSimangaliso Wetland Park and MPA; De Hoop Nature Reserve and MPA; Addo Elephant National Park and MPA; and Namaqua National Park and MPA.

Figure 1. Coastal ecosystem protection level, 2025.

Figure 2. Ecosystem protection level of coastal ecosystem types by (A) number of types and (B) extent of types

Coastal terrestrial ecosystem types are most Well Protected (22% of types, and 18% of extent); coastal marine ecosystem types have the largest percentage of ecosystem types in the top two categories, Well Protected and Moderately Protected (55% of types); and estuarine ecosystem types have the highest extent of protection across Well, Moderately and Poorly Protected (91% of extent) (Figure 2, Table 1).

In terms of Not Protected ecosystem types, the highest proportion of types is in the (coastal) terrestrial realm (20%), and the highest proportion of extent is in the (coastal) marine realm (31%) (Figure 2, Table 1).

Number of types

Table 1. Ecosystem protection level of coastal ecosystem types: number of types per protection category, given per across-shore zone (inland to offshore). WP = Well Protected; MP = Moderately Protected; PP = Poorly Protected; NP = Not Protected.

Realm	Sub-realm	WP	MP	PP	NP	Total
Coastal Terrestrial	Total	18	13	35	17	83
Coastal Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	8	5	16	7	36
Coastal Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	10	8	19	10	47
Estuarine	Total	2	8	9	3	22
Coastal Marine	Total	16	31	31	7	85
Coastal Marine	Shore	9	13	13	2	37
Coastal Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	7	18	18	5	48
Coastal (overall)	Total	36	52	75	27	190
Non-coastal	Total	121	71	153	115	460

Proportion of types

Table 2. Ecosystem protection level of coastal ecosystem types: proportion of types per protection category, given per across-shore zone (inland to offshore). WP = Well Protected; MP = Moderately Protected; PP = Poorly Protected; NP = Not Protected.

Realm	Sub-realm	WP	MP	PP	NP	Total
Coastal Terrestrial	Total	21.7	15.7	42.2	20.5	100
Coastal Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	22.2	13.9	44.4	19.4	100
Coastal Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	21.3	17.0	40.4	21.3	100
Estuarine	Total	9.1	36.4	40.9	13.6	100
Coastal Marine	Total	18.8	36.5	36.5	8.2	100
Coastal Marine	Shore	24.3	35.1	35.1	5.4	100
Coastal Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	14.6	37.5	37.5	10.4	100
Coastal (overall)	Total	18.9	27.4	39.5	14.2	100
Non-coastal	Total	26.3	15.4	33.3	25.0	100

Proportion of extent

Table 3. Ecosystem protection level of coastal ecosystem types: proportion of extent per protection category, given per across-shore zone (inland to offshore). WP = Well Protected; MP = Moderately Protected; PP = Poorly Protected; NP = Not Protected.

Realm	Sub-realm	WP	MP	PP	NP	Total
Coastal Terrestrial	Total	17.9	15.7	51.7	14.7	100
Coastal Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	31.8	19.5	41.0	7.6	100
Coastal Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	9.1	13.3	58.5	19.2	100
Estuarine	Total	0.1	59.0	31.6	9.3	100
Coastal Marine	Total	1.1	20.5	47.8	30.6	100
Coastal Marine	Shore	18.9	40.7	40.2	0.2	100
Coastal Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	0.7	20.1	48.0	31.2	100
Coastal (overall)	Total	6.6	19.9	48.7	24.8	100
Non-coastal	Total	4.8	7.7	48.7	38.9	100

Because the targets and assessment methodologies have changed in the realm assessments since the NBA 2018, the results are not comparable between the two assessments as a time series. However, the latest results do show that the South African coastal zone is less protected than was previously reported.

Table 4. Protection level of coastal ecosystem types in South Africa. EPL = Ecosystem Protection Level. WP = Well Protected. MP = Moderately Protected. PP = Poorly Protected. NP = Not Protected.

Realm	Subrealm	Ecosystem Type	Protection Level
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Cape Seashore Vegetation	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Goukamma Dune Thicket	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Langebaan Dune Strandveld	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Mangrove Forest	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Northern Coastal Forest	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Potberg Sandstone Fynbos	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Southern Coastal Forest	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Subtropical Dune Thicket	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Subtropical Seashore Vegetation	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Swamp Forest	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Goukamma Strandveld	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Kogelberg Sandstone Fynbos	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Namib Lichen Fields	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Peninsula Shale Fynbos	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Southern Afrotemperate Forest	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Umtiza Forest Thicket	Well Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Cape Flats Dune Strandveld	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Hangklip Sand Fynbos	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Kasouga Dune Thicket	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Maputaland Coastal Belt	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Coastal Duneveld	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Overberg Dune Strandveld	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Peninsula Granite Fynbos	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Saldanha Limestone Strandveld	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albany Mesic Thicket	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Cape Winelands Shale Fynbos	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	De Hoop Limestone Fynbos	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Maputaland Wooded Grassland	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Southwestern Strandveld	Moderately Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Agulhas Limestone Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Agulhas Sand Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Algoa Sandstone Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Hamburg Dune Thicket	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Hartenbos Dune Thicket	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Lambert's Bay Strandveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Heuweltjie Strandveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Inland Duneveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Sand Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Seashore Vegetation	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Strandveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Peninsula Shale Renosterveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Pondoland-Ugu Sandstone Coastal Sourveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Saldanha Flats Strandveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Saldanha Granite Strandveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Southern Cape Dune Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	St Francis Dune Thicket	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Transkei Coastal Belt	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Western Gariep Plains Desert	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albertinia Sand Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Atlantis Sand Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Eastern Coastal Shale Band Vegetation	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Elands Forest Thicket	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Elim Ferricrete Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Garden Route Shale Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Grassridge Bontveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Grootbos Strandveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Hopefield Sand Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Knysna Sand Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Lourensford Alluvium Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Overberg Sandstone Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Potberg Ferricrete Fynbos	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	South Eastern Coastal Thornveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Southeastern Strandveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	St Francis Strandveld	Poorly Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Alexander Bay Coastal Duneveld	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Canca Limestone Fynbos	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Garden Route Granite Fynbos	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Groot Brak Dune Strandveld	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Belt Grassland	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namib Seashore Vegetation	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Northern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Richtersveld Coastal Duneveld	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Richtersveld Sandy Coastal Scorpionstailveld	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Southern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Bethelsdorp Bontveld	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Cape Flats Sand Fynbos	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Gouritz Valley Thicket	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Humansdorp Shale Renosterveld	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Mossel Bay Shale Renosterveld	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Motherwell Karroid Thicket	Not Protected
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Sardinia Forest Thicket	Not Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Small Fluvially Dominated	Well Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Small Fluvially Dominated	Well Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Estuarine Lagoon	Moderately Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Small Temporarily Closed	Moderately Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Estuarine Lake	Moderately Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Small Temporarily Closed	Moderately Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Tropical Estuarine Lake	Moderately Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Estuarine Bay	Moderately Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Estuarine Lake	Moderately Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Small Temporarily Closed	Moderately Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Arid Predominantly Closed	Poorly Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Estuarine Lake	Poorly Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Large Fluvially Dominated	Poorly Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Large Temporarily Closed	Poorly Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Large Fluvially Dominated	Poorly Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Large Temporarily Closed	Poorly Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Predominantly Open	Poorly Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Large Temporarily Closed	Poorly Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Predominantly Open	Poorly Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Predominantly Open	Not Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Estuarine Bay	Not Protected
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Large Fluvially Dominated	Not Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Agulhas Inner Shelf Reef	Well Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Delagoa Sandy Inner Shelf	Well Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Kosi Coral Community	Well Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Leadsman Coral Community	Well Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Mid Shelf Fossils	Well Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Sodwana Coral Community	Well Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	St Lucia Sandy Inner Shelf	Well Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Island	Well Protected
Marine	Shore	Delagoa Mixed Shore	Well Protected
Marine	Shore	Delagoa Very Exposed Rocky Shore	Well Protected
Marine	Shore	Natal Boulder Shore	Well Protected
Marine	Shore	Natal Delagoa Dissipative Intermediate Sandy Shore	Well Protected
Marine	Shore	Natal Delagoa Intermediate Sandy Shore	Well Protected
Marine	Shore	Natal Delagoa Reflective Sandy Shore	Well Protected
Marine	Shore	Natal Exposed Rocky Shore	Well Protected
Marine	Shore	Southern Benguela Dissipative Sandy Shore	Well Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Agulhas Inner Shelf Mosaic	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Agulhas Sandy Inner Shelf	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Aliwal Shoal Reef Complex	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Durnford Mid Shelf Reef Complex	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Eastern Agulhas Bay	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Muddy Inner Shelf	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Muddy Shelf Edge	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Kei Fluvial Fan	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Kei Reef Mosaic	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Sandy Inner Shelf	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Port St Johns Inner Shelf Mosaic	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Port St Johns Muddy Mid Shelf	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Port St Johns Muddy Shelf Edge	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	St Lucia Sandy Mid Shelf	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Wild Coast Inner Shelf Mosaic	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	uThukela Mid Shelf Mosaic	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	uThukela Mid Shelf Mud Coarse Sediment Mosaic	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	uThukela Outer Shelf Muddy Reef Mosaic	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Boulder Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Dissipative Intermediate Sandy Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Dissipative Sandy Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Exposed Rocky Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Intermediate Sandy Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Very Exposed Stromatolite Rocky Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Cape Boulder Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Cape Exposed Rocky Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Cape Island	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Cape Very Exposed Rocky Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Natal Mixed Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Natal Very Exposed Rocky Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Shore	Southern Benguela Dissipative Intermediate Sandy Shore	Moderately Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Agulhas Kelp Forest	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Agulhas Muddy Mid Shelf	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Cape Bay	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Cape Kelp Forest	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Cape Rocky Inner Shelf	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Cape Sandy Inner Shelf	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Durnford Inner Shelf Reef Complex	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	False and Walker Bay	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Deep Shelf Edge	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Mid Shelf Mosaic	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Outer Shelf Mosaic	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Sandy Inner Shelf	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Kelp Forest	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Muddy Mid Shelf Mosaic	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Sandy Mid Shelf	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Southern KZN Inner Shelf Mosaic	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Trafalgar Reef Complex	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Western Agulhas Bay	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Exposed Stromatolite Rocky Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Mixed Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Reflective Sandy Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Sheltered Rocky Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Stromatolite Mixed Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Very Exposed Rocky Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Cape Mixed Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Namaqua Exposed Rocky Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Namaqua Mixed Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Namaqua Sheltered Rocky Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Namaqua Very Exposed Rocky Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Southern Benguela Intermediate Sandy Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Shore	Southern Benguela Reflective Sandy Shore	Poorly Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Mid Shelf Reef Complex	Not Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Muddy Sands	Not Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Orange Cone Inner Shelf Mud Reef Mosaic	Not Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Orange Cone Muddy Mid Shelf	Not Protected
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	St Helena Bay	Not Protected
Marine	Shore	Cape Sheltered Rocky Shore	Not Protected
Marine	Shore	Natal Delagoa Dissipative Sandy Shore	Not Protected

Technical documentation

Github repositories

Coastal synthesis: https://github.com/lrharris/nba2025_coast/

Terrestrial EPL assessment: https://github.com/askowno/EPL_terr

Estuarine EPL assessment: https://github.com/askowno/EPL_est

Marine EPL assessment:

Data availability

The following datasets are available for download:

1. Map of ecosystem protection level of South Africa’s coastal ecosystem types

Related publications and supporting information

1. Harris, L.R., Skowno, A.L., Sink, K.J., Van Niekerk, L., Holness, S.D., Monyeki, M., Majiedt, P., 2022. An indicator-based approach for cross-realm coastal biodiversity assessments. African Journal of Marine Science 44, 239-253. https://doi.org/10.2989/1814232X.2022.2104373
   Technical details regarding the protection level assessment of coastal ecosystem types from the NBA 2018
2. Harris, L.R., Skowno, A.L., Holness, S.D., Sink, K.J., van Niekerk, L., van Deventer, H., Smith-Adao, L., Job, N., Khatieb, S., Monyeki, M. Indicators for tracking progress in effective, representative ecosystem protection. Conservation Biology, in review.
   Technical details regarding development of new indicators of effective, representative ecosystem protection and their application in South Africa
3. Harris, L.R., van Niekerk, L., Holness, S.D., Sink, K.J., Skowno, A.L., Dayaram, A., van Deventer, H., Job, N., Lamberth, S.J., Adams, J.B., Raw, J.L., Riddin, T., MacKay, C.F., Perschke, M.J., 2025. Conserving cross-realm coastal biodiversity when real-world planning and implementation processes split the land and sea. Ocean & Coastal Management 263, 107586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2025.107586
   Technical details regarding cross-realm conservation planning to ensure inclusion of land-sea processes and biodiversity, with proposed management recommendations for restoring and conserving coastal biodiversity

Recommended citation

Harris, L.R., Besseling, N., Sink, K.J., Skowno, A.L., & Van Niekerk, L. 2025. Ecosystem Protection Level. National Biodiversity Assessment 2025. South African National Biodiversity Institute. http://nba.sanbi.org.za/.

References