Ecosystem Types

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190
Coastal Ecosystem Types
comprising

83
Terrestrial
ecosystem types

22
Estuarine
ecosystem types

85
Marine
ecosystem types

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Summary

South Africa arguably has one of the most diverse and scenic coasts in the world, supporting a wealth of unique biodiversity. Altogether, there are 190 coastal ecosystem types that comprise the ecologically determined coastal zone (EDCZ). These include 83 vegetation types, 22 estuarine ecosystem types, and 85 marine ecosystem types. Freshwater ecosystem types are not currently included in the EDCZ, but there is planned inclusion in future.

The ecological determined coastal zone is a cross-realm zone that includes terrestrial, estuarine and marine ecosystem types, as illustrated here at Nature’s Valley. Photo credit: © Linda Harris (CC-BY-NC-ND)

Defining and delineating the ecologically determined coastal zone

Unlike the terrestrial, inland aquatic, estuarine and marine assessments, all of which assess ecosystem types per realm, the coast assessment is undertaken in a cross-realm zone. The reason for focusing on the coast specifically is because the majority of the world’s population lives in this zone¹, concentrating pressures on biodiversity. Unless assessed separately, trends in coastal biodiversity relative to the rest of the land and sea are lost in the individual realm assessments.

There are lots of different definitions and boundaries of coastal zones. For purposes like biodiversity assessments, the extent of the coast needs to comprise whole ecosystem types because that is the unit of assessment. Using whole ecosystem types also means that the results from the separate realm assessments can be extracted and summarized for the coast.

Substantial effort went into delineating an ecologically determined coastal zone (EDCZ) for the National Biodiversity Assessment (NBA) 2018 by seamlessly aligning the separate realm ecosystem maps, and tagging relevant ecosystem types in the terrestrial, estuarine and marine realm as ‘coastal’ based on a set of criteria². The premise underpinning these criteria is that ecosystem types are considered coastal if they have a direct influence from both the land and sea:

• Terrestrial ecosystem types: all vegetation types influenced by the sea, including:

  • Coastal Vegetation – vegetation types with purely coastal descriptions, and/or with>95% of their extent within 2.5 km of the seashore

  • Semi-Coastal Vegetation – vegetation types with coastal affinities mentioned in description, and/or with>70% of their extent within 10 km of the seashore

• Estuarine ecosystem types: all estuary and micro-estuary types are included in the EDCZ

• Marine ecosystem types: all marine ecosystem types influenced by land are coastal, including:

  • All ecosystem types between the shore and the fair-weather wave base (depth at which ocean waves start to interact with the sea floor)

  • All river-influenced marine ecosystem types

This criteria-based approach means that as ecosystem maps update per realm, the changes are incorporated in updates of the EDCZ.

South Africa’s coastal ecosystem types

The cool Benguela and warm Agulhas currents that flow around South Africa drive steep gradients in climate and environmental conditions from west to east, resulting in diverse coastal ecosystem types and associated species, many of which are found no where else on earth³. The west coast is cool and arid, and the east coast is warm and wet, with a moderate south coast between them. The biogeography around the South African coast thus ranges from cool temperate in the west, through warm temperate in the south, to subtopical and tropical in the east.

The EDCZ has been updated for the NBA 2025 based on updates to the respective realm maps, and currently comprises 190 ecosystem types³ (Figure 1):

• 83 vegetation types: dunes and seashore vegetation, strandveld, duneveld, dune thicket, and coastal thicket, forests and fynbos

• 22 estuary ecosystem types: predominantly open, temporarily closed, and fluvially dominated estuaries, and estuarine lakes, bays and lagoon

• 85 marine ecosystem types: sandy beaches, shingle shores and boulder shores, mixed shores, rocky shores, microbialites, islands, reefs, kelp forests, bays, hard and soft inner shelf, and river-influenced ecosystem types

Figure 1. South Africa’s ecologically determined coastal zone comprises 190 ecosystem types from the terrestrial, estuarine, and marine realms that all support a rich diversity of species, many of which are endemic to South Africa.

Technically, there are an additional three microestuary ecosystem types that are also included in the EDCZ³. However, because microestuaries are not assessed in the National Biodiversity Assessments, they are excluded from the count of coastal ecosystem types in the NBA 2025 content to simplify the statistics and reporting.

Although there is not yet enough information to systematically identify inland aquatic ecosystem types as coastal and non-coastal, this is an area of work that needs more research. There is planned inclusion of freshwater types in future (e.g., freshwater forested wetlands, dune slacks, groundwater, aquifers, seeps and springs, and river–estuary transition zones).

The coastal ecosystem types are listed below (Table 1). For a descriptive overview of these ecosystem types, and inland aquatic ecosystem types proposed to be included in future, refer to the publication.

Table 1. Ecosystem types in South Africa that comprise the ecologically determined coastal zone

Realm	Subrealm	Broad Type	Ecosystem Type
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Albany Mesic Thicket
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Bethelsdorp Bontveld
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Elands Forest Thicket
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Goukamma Dune Thicket
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Gouritz Valley Thicket
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Grassridge Bontveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Hamburg Dune Thicket
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Hartenbos Dune Thicket
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Kasouga Dune Thicket
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Motherwell Karroid Thicket
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Sardinia Forest Thicket
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	St Francis Dune Thicket
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albany Thicket	Umtiza Forest Thicket
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Desert	Alexander Bay Coastal Duneveld
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Desert	Namib Lichen Fields
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Desert	Western Gariep Plains Desert
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Forests	Mangrove Forest
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Forests	Northern Coastal Forest
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Forests	Southern Afrotemperate Forest
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Forests	Southern Coastal Forest
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Forests	Swamp Forest
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Agulhas Limestone Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Agulhas Sand Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Albertinia Sand Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Algoa Sandstone Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Atlantis Sand Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Canca Limestone Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Cape Flats Dune Strandveld
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Cape Flats Sand Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Cape Winelands Shale Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	De Hoop Limestone Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Eastern Coastal Shale Band Vegetation
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Elim Ferricrete Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Garden Route Granite Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Garden Route Shale Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Goukamma Strandveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Groot Brak Dune Strandveld
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Grootbos Strandveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Hangklip Sand Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Hopefield Sand Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Humansdorp Shale Renosterveld
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Knysna Sand Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Kogelberg Sandstone Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Lambert's Bay Strandveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Langebaan Dune Strandveld
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Lourensford Alluvium Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Mossel Bay Shale Renosterveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Namaqualand Sand Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Overberg Dune Strandveld
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Overberg Sandstone Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Peninsula Granite Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Peninsula Shale Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Peninsula Shale Renosterveld
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Potberg Ferricrete Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Potberg Sandstone Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Saldanha Flats Strandveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Saldanha Granite Strandveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Saldanha Limestone Strandveld
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Southeastern Strandveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Southern Cape Dune Fynbos
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Southwestern Strandveld
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	St Francis Strandveld
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Fynbos	Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Indian Ocean Coastal Belt	KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Belt Grassland
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Indian Ocean Coastal Belt	Maputaland Coastal Belt
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Indian Ocean Coastal Belt	Maputaland Wooded Grassland
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Indian Ocean Coastal Belt	Pondoland-Ugu Sandstone Coastal Sourveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Indian Ocean Coastal Belt	Transkei Coastal Belt
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Savanna	South Eastern Coastal Thornveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Succulent Karoo	Namaqualand Coastal Duneveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Succulent Karoo	Namaqualand Heuweltjie Strandveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Succulent Karoo	Namaqualand Inland Duneveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Succulent Karoo	Namaqualand Strandveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Succulent Karoo	Northern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Succulent Karoo	Richtersveld Coastal Duneveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Succulent Karoo	Richtersveld Sandy Coastal Scorpionstailveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Succulent Karoo	Southern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Azonal Vegetation	Subtropical Dune Thicket
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Azonal Vegetation	Cape Seashore Vegetation
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Azonal Vegetation	Namaqualand Seashore Vegetation
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Azonal Vegetation	Namib Seashore Vegetation
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Azonal Vegetation	Subtropical Seashore Vegetation
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Tropical Estuarine Lake
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Subtropical Estuarine Bay
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Subtropical Estuarine Lake
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Subtropical Large Fluvially Dominated
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Subtropical Large Temporarily Closed
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Subtropical Micro-estuary
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Subtropical Predominantly Open
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Subtropical Small Temporarily Closed
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Warm Temperate Estuarine Bay
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Warm Temperate Estuarine Lake
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Warm Temperate Large Fluvially Dominated
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Warm Temperate Large Temporarily Closed
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Warm Temperate Micro-estuary
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Warm Temperate Predominantly Open
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Warm Temperate Small Fluvially Dominated
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Warm Temperate Small Temporarily Closed
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Cool Temperate Arid Predominantly Closed
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Cool Temperate Estuarine Lagoon
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Cool Temperate Estuarine Lake
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Cool Temperate Large Fluvially Dominated
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Cool Temperate Large Temporarily Closed
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Cool Temperate Micro-estuary
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Cool Temperate Predominantly Open
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Cool Temperate Small Fluvially Dominated
Estuarine	Estuaries	Estuary	Cool Temperate Small Temporarily Closed
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Agulhas Boulder Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Agulhas Exposed Stromatolite Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Agulhas Exposed Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Agulhas Sheltered Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Agulhas Very Exposed Stromatolite Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Agulhas Very Exposed Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Cape Boulder Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Cape Exposed Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Cape Sheltered Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Cape Very Exposed Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Delagoa Very Exposed Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Namaqua Exposed Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Namaqua Sheltered Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Namaqua Very Exposed Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Natal Boulder Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Natal Exposed Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Rocky shore	Natal Very Exposed Rocky Shore
Marine	Shore	Mixed shore	Agulhas Mixed Shore
Marine	Shore	Mixed shore	Agulhas Stromatolite Mixed Shore
Marine	Shore	Mixed shore	Cape Mixed Shore
Marine	Shore	Mixed shore	Delagoa Mixed Shore
Marine	Shore	Mixed shore	Namaqua Mixed Shore
Marine	Shore	Mixed shore	Natal Mixed Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Agulhas Dissipative Intermediate Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Agulhas Dissipative Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Agulhas Intermediate Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Agulhas Reflective Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Natal Delagoa Dissipative Intermediate Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Natal Delagoa Dissipative Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Natal Delagoa Intermediate Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Natal Delagoa Reflective Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Southern Benguela Dissipative Intermediate Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Southern Benguela Dissipative Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Southern Benguela Intermediate Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Sandy shore	Southern Benguela Reflective Sandy Shore
Marine	Shore	Island	Agulhas Island
Marine	Shore	Island	Cape Island
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Bay	Eastern Agulhas Bay
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Bay	Western Agulhas Bay
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Bay	Cape Bay
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Bay	False and Walker Bay
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Bay	St Helena Bay
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Kelp forest	Agulhas Kelp Forest
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Kelp forest	Cape Kelp Forest
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Kelp forest	Namaqua Kelp Forest
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Agulhas Inner Shelf Mosaic
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Agulhas Inner Shelf Reef
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Aliwal Shoal Reef Complex
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Cape Rocky Inner Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Durnford Inner Shelf Reef Complex
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Kei Fluvial Fan
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Kosi Coral Community
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Leadsman Coral Community
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Orange Cone Inner Shelf Mud Reef Mosaic
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Port St Johns Inner Shelf Mosaic
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Sodwana Coral Community
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Southern KZN Inner Shelf Mosaic
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Trafalgar Reef Complex
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow rocky shelf	Wild Coast Inner Shelf Mosaic
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow soft shelf	Agulhas Sandy Inner Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow soft shelf	Cape Sandy Inner Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow soft shelf	Delagoa Sandy Inner Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow soft shelf	KZN Bight Muddy Inner Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow soft shelf	KZN Bight Sandy Inner Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow soft shelf	Namaqua Sandy Inner Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Shallow soft shelf	St Lucia Sandy Inner Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep rocky shelf	Durnford Mid Shelf Reef Complex
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep rocky shelf	Kei Reef Mosaic
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep rocky shelf	KZN Bight Mid Shelf Mosaic
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep rocky shelf	KZN Bight Mid Shelf Reef Complex
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep rocky shelf	KZN Bight Outer Shelf Mosaic
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep rocky shelf	Namaqua Mid Shelf Fossils
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep rocky shelf	Namaqua Muddy Mid Shelf Mosaic
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep rocky shelf	uThukela Mid Shelf Mosaic
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep rocky shelf	uThukela Outer Shelf Muddy Reef Mosaic
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep soft shelf	Agulhas Muddy Mid Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep soft shelf	KZN Bight Muddy Shelf Edge
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep soft shelf	KZN Bight Deep Shelf Edge
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep soft shelf	Namaqua Muddy Sands
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep soft shelf	Namaqua Sandy Mid Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep soft shelf	Orange Cone Muddy Mid Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep soft shelf	Port St Johns Muddy Mid Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep soft shelf	Port St Johns Muddy Shelf Edge
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep soft shelf	St Lucia Sandy Mid Shelf
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Deep soft shelf	uThukela Mid Shelf Mud Coarse Sediment Mosaic

Technical documentation

Publication

Harris, L.R., Adams, J.B., Dayaram, A., Dunga, L.V., Job, N., Kirkman, S.P., Lamberth, S.J., Pfaff, M.C., Raw, J.L., Rishworth, G.M., Robbins, A., Sink, K.J., Skowno, A.L., van Deventer, H., van Niekerk, L., 2025. Cross-realm biodiversity profile of the South African coastal zone. African Journal of Marine Science 47, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.2989/1814232X.2025.2463342
Description of the different types of coastal ecosystem types and broad biodiversity patterns in the South African coastal zone. The supplementary material includes a glossary of terms, guidance regarding map layers to use, and a table of the ecosystem types and their areas.

Data availability

The following datasets are available for download:

1. Map of coastal ecosystem types / ecologically determined coastal zone

2. Dune base line: proxy representation of a decadal-scale high-water mark and recommended ecological line to represent the ‘coastline’

3. Landmass line: recognized administrative boundary of the South African mainland landmass

Related publications and supporting information

1. South African National Ecosystem Classification System (SA-NECS)
   Details on South Africa’s ecosystem classification system, with a link to download the SA-NECS handbook

2. Dunga, L., Lück-Vogel, M., Blamey, L.K., Bolton, J., Rothman, M., Desmet, P., Sink, K., 2024. Mapping South Africa’s canopy-forming kelp forests using low-cost, high-resolution Sentinel-2 imagery. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 310, 108989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2024.108989
   Technical details regarding the mapping of kelp forests using remote imagery

3. Vegetation Map Updates 2024
   Collection of technical reports describing the updates to the 2024 version of the National Vegetation Map.

4. Sink, K.J., Adams, L.A., Franken, M., Harris, L.R., Currie, J.C., Karenyi, N., Dayaram, A., Porter, S.N., Kirkman, S.P., Pfaff, M., van Niekerk, L., Atkinson, L., Bernard, A., Bessinger, M., Cawthra, H., de Wet, W., Dunga, L.V., Filander, Z., Green, A., Herbert, D., Holness, S.D., Lamberth, S., Livingstone, T., Lück-Vogel, M., Mackay, F., Makwela, M., Palmer, R., van Zyl, W., Skowno, A.L., 2023. Iterative mapping of marine ecosystems for spatial status assessment, prioritisation and decision support. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 11, 1108118. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2023.1108118
   Technical details regarding the Marine Ecosystem Map

5. Van Niekerk, L., Adams, J.B., James, N.C., Lamberth, S.J., MacKay, C.F., Turpie, J.K., Rajkaran, A., Weerts, S.P., Whitfield, A.K., 2020. An Estuary Ecosystem Classification encompassing biogeography, size and types of diversity that supports estuarine protection, conservation and management. African Journal of Aquatic Science 45, 199-216. https://doi.org/10.2989/16085914.2019.1685934
   Technical details regarding the Estuarine Ecosystem Classification

6. Harris, L.R., Bessinger, M., Dayaram, A., Holness, S., Kirkman, S., Livingstone, T.-C., Lombard, A.T., Lück-Vogel, M., Pfaff, M., Sink, K.J., Skowno, A.L., Van Niekerk, L., 2019. Advancing land-sea integration for ecologically meaningful coastal conservation and management. Biological Conservation 237, 81-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.06.020
   Technical details regarding the conceptualisation and delineation of the land-sea interface into ecosystem types

7. Harris, L.R., Nel, R., Schoeman, D.S., 2011. Mapping beach morphodynamics remotely: A novel application tested on South African sandy shores. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 92, 78-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2010.12.013
   Technical details of a methodology to map beach ecosystem types using remote imagery such as Google Earth

Recommended citation

The publication is the preferred citation for this content, otherwise use:

Harris, L.R., Sink, K.J., Skowno, A.L., Van Niekerk, L., & Dayaram, A. 2025. Ecosystem Types. National Biodiversity Assessment 2025. South African National Biodiversity Institute. http://nba.sanbi.org.za/.

References

1. Cosby, A.G. et al. 2024. Accelerating growth of human coastal populations at the global and continent levels: 20002018. Scientific Reports 14: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-73287-x

2. Harris, L.R. et al. 2019. Advancing land-sea integration for ecologically meaningful coastal conservation and management. Biological Conservation 237: 81–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.06.020

3. Harris, L. et al. 2025. Cross-realm biodiversity profile of the South African coastal zone. African Journal of Marine Science 47: 1–18. https://doi.org/10.2989/1814232x.2025.2463342