Ecosystem Threat Status

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71%
of 190 ecosystem types
Threatened

3
times more
Threatened Ecosystem Types
in the coastal zone

46%
of the coast extent
Threatened

8
times more
Threatened Area
in the coastal zone

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Introduction

Ecosystem threat status (ETS), also called ecosystem red list status, is one of the headline indicators of the National Biodiversity Assessment. It is an indicator of the degree to which ecosystems are still intact or, alternatively, losing vital aspects of their structure, function or composition.

The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems (RLE) framework uses the concept of ecosystem collapse as the end point for ecosystem decline. The framework comprises a set of quantitative and qualitative criteria (and thresholds) linked to ecosystem extent, ecological condition, and threatening processes.

Each ecosystem type is assessed according to these criteria, and is then placed into one of several categories. Collectively, ecosystem types assessed as Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable are called ‘threatened’. Collapsed is the ecosystem equivalent of the species category, Extinct.

• Collapsed (CO)

• Critically Endangered (CR)

• Endangered (EN)

• Vulnerable (VU)

• Near Threatened (NT)

• Least Concern (LC)

• Not Evaluated (NE)

• Data deficient (DD)

For NBA 2025, the RLE framework was applied across all realms, and the results are summarised here for the 190 coastal ecosystem types that were assessed. For more details on ETS, see the general introduction to this headline indicator.

Coastal Ecosystem Threat Status

The South African coast is proportionately more threatened than the rest of the country (entire non-coastal territory combined, Figure 2, Table 1). In fact, the coast (71% threatened ecosystem types) proportionately has 3 times more threatened ecosystem types than the rest of the country (22%), which is proportionately 8 times more by extent (coastal: 46%, non-coastal: 6%). Areas where threatened ecosystem types are concentrated are around the Orange River mouth, through most of the Western Cape, in St Francis and Algoa bays, and along virtually the entire East Coast (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Coastal ecosystem threat status, 2025.

Figure 2. Ecosystem threat status of coastal ecosystem types by (A) number of types and (B) extent of types

Of the 190 coastal ecosystem types in the EDCZ, 134 are threatened, comprising 40 Critically Endangered, 56 Endangered, and 38 Vulnerable ecosystem types (Figure 2, Table 1). These threatened types make up 99% of the estuarine realm, 49% of the coastal terrestrial extent, 43% of the coastal marine extent, and 46% of the overall coastal extent.

In comparison, there are 101 (22%) threatened ecosystem types that comprise 6% of the rest of the country (non-coastal land and sea). Proportionately, this means the coast has three times the number of threatened ecosystem types and almost an order of magnitude (eight times) more threatened area than the rest of the South African mainland territory (Figure 2, Table 1).

Number of types

Table 1. Ecosystem threat status of coastal ecosystem types: number of types per threat category, given per across-shore zone (inland to offshore). Thr = Threatened (CR, EN, VU); CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; LC = Least Concern

Realm	Sub-realm	Thr	CR	EN	VU	NT	LC	Total
Coastal Terrestrial	Total	57	34	22	1	0	26	83
Coastal Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	28	16	12	0	0	8	36
Coastal Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	29	18	10	1	0	18	47
Estuarine	Total	20	1	9	10	0	2	22
Coastal Marine	Total	57	5	25	27	11	17	85
Coastal Marine	Shore	18	0	11	7	10	9	37
Coastal Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	39	5	14	20	1	8	48
Coastal (overall)	Total	134	40	56	38	11	45	190
Non-coastal	Total	101	30	53	18	8	351	460

Proportion of types

Table 2. Ecosystem threat status of coastal ecosystem types: proportion of types per threat category, given per across-shore zone (inland to offshore). Thr = Threatened (CR, EN, VU); CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; LC = Least Concern

Realm	Sub-realm	Thr	CR	EN	VU	NT	LC	Total
Coastal Terrestrial	Total	68.7	41.0	26.5	1.2	0.0	31.3	100
Coastal Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	77.8	44.4	33.3	0.0	0.0	22.2	100
Coastal Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	61.7	38.3	21.3	2.1	0.0	38.3	100
Estuarine	Total	90.9	4.5	40.9	45.5	0.0	9.1	100
Coastal Marine	Total	67.1	5.9	29.4	31.8	12.9	20.0	100
Coastal Marine	Shore	48.6	0.0	29.7	18.9	27.0	24.3	100
Coastal Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	81.2	10.4	29.2	41.7	2.1	16.7	100
Coastal (overall)	Total	70.5	21.1	29.5	20.0	5.8	23.7	100
Non-coastal	Total	22.0	6.5	11.5	3.9	1.7	76.3	100

Proportion of extent

Table 3. Ecosystem threat status of coastal ecosystem types: proportion of extent per threat category, given per across-shore zone (inland to offshore). The extent of terrestrial ecosystem types is given as the percentage of remaining natural habitat. Thr = Threatened (CR, EN, VU); CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; LC = Least Concern

Realm	Sub-realm	Thr	CR	EN	VU	NT	LC	Total
Coastal Terrestrial	Total	49.0	13.2	33.3	2.5	0.0	51.0	100
Coastal Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	63.1	17.8	45.3	0.0	0.0	36.9	100
Coastal Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	40.1	10.4	25.7	4.0	0.0	59.9	100
Estuarine	Total	99.1	1.4	71.7	26.0	0.0	0.9	100
Coastal Marine	Total	43.1	5.5	20.8	16.8	1.7	55.2	100
Coastal Marine	Shore	37.5	0.0	16.9	20.7	34.4	28.1	100
Coastal Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	43.2	5.7	20.8	16.7	1.1	55.7	100
Coastal (overall)	Total	46.5	8.0	26.2	12.3	1.1	52.4	100
Non-coastal	Total	5.7	0.3	2.4	3.0	1.5	92.8	100

Most (34) of the 40 Critically Endangered coastal ecosystem types are within the coastal portion of the terrestrial realm (Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1), with a slightly higher proportion of types and extent among semi-coastal vegetation types (44% of types; 17.8% of extent) than coastal vegetation types (38% of types; 10.4% of extent). This is because pressures on land act more locally and intensively than they do in the aquatic realms, often causing complete habitat loss (e.g., houses replacing grasslands) rather than degrees of degradation (e.g., different pollution levels in estuaries).

Because the data and/or assessment methodologies have changed in the realm assessments since the NBA 2018, the results are not comparable between the two assessments. However, the latest results do show that the South African coastal zone is more threatened than was previously reported.

Table 4. Threat status of coastal ecosystem types in South Africa. ETS = Ecosystem Threat Status. CR = Critically Endangered. EN = Endangered. VU = Vulnerable. NT = Near Threatened. LC = Least Concern.

Realm	Subrealm	Ecosystem Type	Threat Status
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Agulhas Limestone Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Agulhas Sand Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Alexander Bay Coastal Duneveld	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Algoa Sandstone Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Garden Route Granite Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Goukamma Dune Thicket	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Groot Brak Dune Strandveld	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Hangklip Sand Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Lambert's Bay Strandveld	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Seashore Vegetation	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namib Seashore Vegetation	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Peninsula Granite Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Peninsula Shale Renosterveld	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Potberg Sandstone Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Richtersveld Coastal Duneveld	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Saldanha Granite Strandveld	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Saldanha Limestone Strandveld	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Southern Cape Dune Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Cape Flats Sand Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Cape Winelands Shale Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Gouritz Valley Thicket	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Grootbos Strandveld	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Knysna Sand Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Kogelberg Sandstone Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Lourensford Alluvium Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Mossel Bay Shale Renosterveld	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Motherwell Karroid Thicket	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Namib Lichen Fields	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Peninsula Shale Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Potberg Ferricrete Fynbos	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Sardinia Forest Thicket	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	St Francis Strandveld	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Umtiza Forest Thicket	Critically Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Cape Flats Dune Strandveld	Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Hartenbos Dune Thicket	Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Belt Grassland	Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Langebaan Dune Strandveld	Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Mangrove Forest	Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Maputaland Coastal Belt	Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Overberg Dune Strandveld	Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Saldanha Flats Strandveld	Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	St Francis Dune Thicket	Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Transkei Coastal Belt	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albertinia Sand Fynbos	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Atlantis Sand Fynbos	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Eastern Coastal Shale Band Vegetation	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Elim Ferricrete Fynbos	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Garden Route Shale Fynbos	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Hopefield Sand Fynbos	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Humansdorp Shale Renosterveld	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Maputaland Wooded Grassland	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Overberg Sandstone Fynbos	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	South Eastern Coastal Thornveld	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Southeastern Strandveld	Endangered
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Southwestern Strandveld	Endangered
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Pondoland-Ugu Sandstone Coastal Sourveld	Vulnerable
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Canca Limestone Fynbos	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Cape Seashore Vegetation	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Hamburg Dune Thicket	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Kasouga Dune Thicket	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Coastal Duneveld	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Heuweltjie Strandveld	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Inland Duneveld	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Sand Fynbos	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Namaqualand Strandveld	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Northern Coastal Forest	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Northern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Richtersveld Sandy Coastal Scorpionstailveld	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Southern Coastal Forest	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Southern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Subtropical Dune Thicket	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Subtropical Seashore Vegetation	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Swamp Forest	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Coastal vegetation	Western Gariep Plains Desert	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Albany Mesic Thicket	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Bethelsdorp Bontveld	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	De Hoop Limestone Fynbos	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Elands Forest Thicket	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Goukamma Strandveld	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Grassridge Bontveld	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Southern Afrotemperate Forest	Least Concern
Terrestrial	Semi-coastal vegetation	Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos	Least Concern
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Estuarine Bay	Critically Endangered
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Arid Predominantly Closed	Endangered
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Estuarine Lagoon	Endangered
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Estuarine Lake	Endangered
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Large Fluvially Dominated	Endangered
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Large Temporarily Closed	Endangered
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Predominantly Open	Endangered
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Estuarine Lake	Endangered
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Large Fluvially Dominated	Endangered
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Estuarine Lake	Endangered
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Small Fluvially Dominated	Vulnerable
Estuarine	Estuaries	Cool Temperate Small Temporarily Closed	Vulnerable
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Large Temporarily Closed	Vulnerable
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Predominantly Open	Vulnerable
Estuarine	Estuaries	Subtropical Small Temporarily Closed	Vulnerable
Estuarine	Estuaries	Tropical Estuarine Lake	Vulnerable
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Estuarine Bay	Vulnerable
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Large Fluvially Dominated	Vulnerable
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Large Temporarily Closed	Vulnerable
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Predominantly Open	Vulnerable
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Small Fluvially Dominated	Least Concern
Estuarine	Estuaries	Warm Temperate Small Temporarily Closed	Least Concern
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Agulhas Muddy Mid Shelf	Critically Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Aliwal Shoal Reef Complex	Critically Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Cape Bay	Critically Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Muddy Inner Shelf	Critically Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Orange Cone Inner Shelf Mud Reef Mosaic	Critically Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Durnford Inner Shelf Reef Complex	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Eastern Agulhas Bay	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	False and Walker Bay	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Deep Shelf Edge	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Mid Shelf Mosaic	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Mid Shelf Reef Complex	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Sandy Inner Shelf	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Kei Fluvial Fan	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Kei Reef Mosaic	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Orange Cone Muddy Mid Shelf	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Southern KZN Inner Shelf Mosaic	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	St Helena Bay	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Trafalgar Reef Complex	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Western Agulhas Bay	Endangered
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Reflective Sandy Shore	Endangered
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Sheltered Rocky Shore	Endangered
Marine	Shore	Cape Island	Endangered
Marine	Shore	Cape Mixed Shore	Endangered
Marine	Shore	Cape Sheltered Rocky Shore	Endangered
Marine	Shore	Namaqua Exposed Rocky Shore	Endangered
Marine	Shore	Namaqua Mixed Shore	Endangered
Marine	Shore	Namaqua Sheltered Rocky Shore	Endangered
Marine	Shore	Namaqua Very Exposed Rocky Shore	Endangered
Marine	Shore	Natal Delagoa Reflective Sandy Shore	Endangered
Marine	Shore	Southern Benguela Reflective Sandy Shore	Endangered
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Agulhas Inner Shelf Mosaic	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Agulhas Kelp Forest	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Agulhas Sandy Inner Shelf	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Cape Kelp Forest	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Cape Rocky Inner Shelf	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Durnford Mid Shelf Reef Complex	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Muddy Shelf Edge	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	KZN Bight Outer Shelf Mosaic	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Kosi Coral Community	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Leadsman Coral Community	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Kelp Forest	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Port St Johns Inner Shelf Mosaic	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Port St Johns Muddy Mid Shelf	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Port St Johns Muddy Shelf Edge	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Sodwana Coral Community	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	St Lucia Sandy Mid Shelf	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Wild Coast Inner Shelf Mosaic	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	uThukela Mid Shelf Mosaic	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	uThukela Mid Shelf Mud Coarse Sediment Mosaic	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	uThukela Outer Shelf Muddy Reef Mosaic	Vulnerable
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Exposed Rocky Shore	Vulnerable
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Island	Vulnerable
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Stromatolite Mixed Shore	Vulnerable
Marine	Shore	Cape Boulder Shore	Vulnerable
Marine	Shore	Cape Exposed Rocky Shore	Vulnerable
Marine	Shore	Natal Boulder Shore	Vulnerable
Marine	Shore	Natal Mixed Shore	Vulnerable
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Cape Sandy Inner Shelf	Near Threatened
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Boulder Shore	Near Threatened
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Dissipative Sandy Shore	Near Threatened
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Exposed Stromatolite Rocky Shore	Near Threatened
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Mixed Shore	Near Threatened
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Very Exposed Stromatolite Rocky Shore	Near Threatened
Marine	Shore	Natal Delagoa Dissipative Sandy Shore	Near Threatened
Marine	Shore	Natal Delagoa Intermediate Sandy Shore	Near Threatened
Marine	Shore	Natal Exposed Rocky Shore	Near Threatened
Marine	Shore	Natal Very Exposed Rocky Shore	Near Threatened
Marine	Shore	Southern Benguela Intermediate Sandy Shore	Near Threatened
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Agulhas Inner Shelf Reef	Least Concern
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Delagoa Sandy Inner Shelf	Least Concern
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Mid Shelf Fossils	Least Concern
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Muddy Mid Shelf Mosaic	Least Concern
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Muddy Sands	Least Concern
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Sandy Inner Shelf	Least Concern
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	Namaqua Sandy Mid Shelf	Least Concern
Marine	Inner shelf and river influenced	St Lucia Sandy Inner Shelf	Least Concern
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Dissipative Intermediate Sandy Shore	Least Concern
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Intermediate Sandy Shore	Least Concern
Marine	Shore	Agulhas Very Exposed Rocky Shore	Least Concern
Marine	Shore	Cape Very Exposed Rocky Shore	Least Concern
Marine	Shore	Delagoa Mixed Shore	Least Concern
Marine	Shore	Delagoa Very Exposed Rocky Shore	Least Concern
Marine	Shore	Natal Delagoa Dissipative Intermediate Sandy Shore	Least Concern
Marine	Shore	Southern Benguela Dissipative Intermediate Sandy Shore	Least Concern
Marine	Shore	Southern Benguela Dissipative Sandy Shore	Least Concern

Technical documentation

Github repositories

Coastal synthesis: https://github.com/lrharris/nba2025_coast/

Terrestrial RLE assessment: https://github.com/askowno/RLE_terr

Estuarine RLE assessment: https://github.com/askowno/RLE_est

Marine RLE assessment: https://gitlab.com/nba_2025/ecosystem_assessment/threat_status

Data availability

The following datasets are available for download:

1. Map of ecosystem threat status of South Africa’s coastal ecosystem types

Related publications and supporting information

1. Harris, L.R., Raimondo, D., Sink, K., Holness, S.D., Skowno, A.L., 2025. Sandy beach ecosystem and species red listing highlight priorities for beach conservation and restoration. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 324, 109447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2025.109447
   Technical details regarding the threat status assessment of sandy shore ecosystem types and species
2. Harris, L.R., Skowno, A.L., Sink, K.J., Van Niekerk, L., Holness, S.D., Monyeki, M., Majiedt, P., 2022. An indicator-based approach for cross-realm coastal biodiversity assessments. African Journal of Marine Science 44, 239-253. https://doi.org/10.2989/1814232X.2022.2104373
   Technical details regarding the threat status assessment of coastal ecosystem types from the NBA 2018

Recommended citation

Harris, L.R., Besseling, N., Sink, K.J., Skowno, A.L., & Van Niekerk, L. 2025. Ecosystem Threat Status. National Biodiversity Assessment 2025. South African National Biodiversity Institute. http://nba.sanbi.org.za/.

References